Research Methods Chapter One Introduction

Research Methods Chapter One establishes the foundation for the research endeavor by situating the study within existing knowledge and outlining the research background. The following will be discussed in “Chapter One.”

Research Title
Research background and context
Statement of the problem
Research hypotheses
Purpose and significance of the study
Aims and objectives
Research questions

This is intended to offer a general guide for conducting and writing research. Remember to adapt the content and structure based on the specific requirements of your research, considering the expectations of your audience and adhering to the guidelines of your institution or publisher.

Background and Context

The “Research Background and Context” section is essential for providing readers with a comprehensive understanding of the broader landscape in which the research is situated. This section serves as a bridge between the general field of study and the specific research problem. Here’s a detailed explanation of the information to be included under this heading:

Introduction to the General Field- Begin by introducing the general field of study. Provide a brief overview of the subject area, highlighting its significance and relevance in the broader academic or practical context. This sets the stage for readers who may not be familiar with the specific topic.
Historical Context (if applicable)- If relevant, consider incorporating historical background information that sheds light on the evolution of the subject. Discuss key milestones, events, or developments that have shaped the current state of knowledge in the field. This historical context provides depth and perspective.
Current State of Knowledge- Review the existing literature and current state of knowledge related to the research topic. Summarize key findings, debates, or gaps in the literature. Identify seminal studies and theoretical frameworks that have influenced the field. This establishes the baseline for the research problem.
Identification of Gaps or Issues- Clearly articulate the gaps, issues, or unresolved questions in the current body of knowledge. This leads to the formulation of the research problem. Discuss any controversies, inconsistencies, or areas where further exploration is needed. Demonstrate why the research is timely and necessary.
Relevance to Contemporary Issues- Connect the research topic to contemporary issues, challenges, or trends in the field. Demonstrate how the study addresses current concerns and contributes to ongoing discussions. Highlight the real-world implications and applications of the research.
Transition to the Research Problem- Seamlessly transition from the general field and existing knowledge to the specific research problem. Clearly state the gap or issue that the research aims to address. This transition should be smooth and logical, guiding readers toward a clear understanding of the research focus.

Statement of the Problem

A well-structured problem statement, encompasses these five aspects, provides a solid foundation for guiding the research process and conveying the importance of the study’s focus.

Articulate the central subject matter that your research aims to address, providing a concise and specific overview.
Clearly define the core problem or issue under investigation, ensuring a focused and unambiguous understanding.
Justify the significance of the identified problem by referencing past research findings and its practical implications. Demonstrate how the problem impacts the field and why it merits attention.
Explicitly highlight the existing gaps in our understanding of the problem. Showcase the deficiencies in current knowledge to underscore the necessity of further investigation.
Clearly specify the target audiences or stakeholders who stand to benefit from a comprehensive study of the identified problem. This includes both academic and practical beneficiaries.

Let us explore the following using an example:

Identifying the Problem

‘Obesity has emerged as a significant public health challenge within the urban population of Kingston and St. Andrew. This issue particularly affects adults aged 18-65 residing in urban areas, where obesity rates have surged by 25% over the past decade. The problem is exacerbated in low-income neighborhoods, where residents face limited access to nutritious food options and opportunities for physical activity. Within this context, the rising trend of obesity poses a substantial threat to the health and well-being of the urban populace.’

Understanding the Significance

The gravity of the situation becomes apparent when considering the adverse consequences associated with obesity. Individuals grappling with obesity are at a heightened risk of developing chronic conditions such as diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disorders. Beyond the individual level, the escalating rates of obesity strain the city’s healthcare system and economy. Healthcare resources are increasingly allocated to address obesity-related health issues, while the broader economy faces challenges due to decreased workforce productivity and higher healthcare expenditure. Addressing this issue is crucial not only for the affected individuals’ well-being but also for the overall health resilience and economic stability of the city.

Contextualizing the Problem

In light of the prevailing circumstances, it is imperative to bridge existing gaps in knowledge and take prompt, evidence-based action. Previous research in this area has laid the groundwork, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions to curb obesity rates. Insights from other researchers underscore the urgency of developing comprehensive strategies that encompass nutritional education, community engagement, and accessible fitness initiatives. By building upon the existing body of knowledge and collaborating with experts and community stakeholders, there exists a valuable opportunity to devise effective interventions. Addressing the urban obesity epidemic demands a multidisciplinary approach, rooted in research, policy development, and community involvement, to bring about lasting positive changes in the lives of the affected population.

Guide to Selecting a Research Problem

When embarking on the crucial task of selecting a research problem, consider the following guidelines:

Selecting a research problem statement — The Problem Statement

Selecting a research problem statement. The significance and contribution of the study. — The Significance of the Study

Selecting a research problem statement. Manageability of the problem statement. — The Problem Statement

Selecting a research problem statement. The characteristics of a good problem statement. — Characteristics of Problem Statement

Selecting a research problem statement. A good research problem statement. — Characteristics of Problem Statement

Selecting a research problem statement. Focusing the problem statement. — The Problem Statement

Selecting a research problem statement. Articulating the research problem statement. — Stating the Problem

Now that you have reviewed the guidelines to develop a problem statement ensuring meaningful contribution to the body of existing knowledge or solutions to real-life problems, let us take a look at some examples. We will explore the broad topic, problem statement and research question form.

The nature of the problem statement may lean towards either a quantitative or qualitative approach. Indicators such as “cross-sectional analysis,” “investigating the impact,” and the use of quantifiable variables suggest a quantitative research problem. On the other hand, expressions like “understanding a critical issue,” “exploring experiences and challenges,” and the use of descriptive language such as ‘grappling with’ indicate a qualitative orientation. Phrases acknowledging issues as multifaceted, recognizing nuanced contextual factors, etc., are associated with a qualitative-type problem statement. This concept will be further explored when we delve into the formulation of research questions.

You have decided on what you want to research and know how to articulate the problem, let us look at how we create a research title.

Research Title

A well-written research topic or hypothesis comprises several key components that provide a clear and concise overview of the study’s focus. Firstly, it should be specific and narrowly defined, highlighting the particular aspect of the subject area under investigation. Clarity is essential, ensuring that the topic is clearly articulated and understandable to readers from various backgrounds. Additionally, a good research topic should be relevant to the field of study, addressing current issues, gaps in knowledge, or real-world problems. It should also be original and contribute something new to the existing body of knowledge, either by exploring a novel angle, proposing an innovative solution, or examining an unexplored phenomenon.

Furthermore, the topic should be feasible within the scope of the researcher’s resources, time, and expertise, allowing for meaningful data collection and analysis. When well-crafted, a research topic often includes key variables or concepts (people, place and time), indicating the specific elements that will be studied, providing a clear direction for the research process. Encompassing these elements, a research topic serves as the foundation upon which a successful research study is built.

Consider this Research Title, we will use it to explore other components of the research process.

“A cross-sectional analysis of urban obesity: Investigating the Impact of Access to Nutritious Food and Physical Activity Opportunities on Obesity Rates among Adults (18-65) in Low-Income Neighborhoods of Kingston and St. Andrew.”

In crafting a problem statement or question, it may not always be feasible or advisable to incorporate all specific details. To enhance specificity and provide clear direction, researchers often formulate detailed Research Questions and Hypotheses.

Additionally, the development of these inquiries is guided by a Conceptual Framework, which serves as a theory or prediction, providing a roadmap for researchers as they refine their research questions or hypotheses (Creswell, 2017).

Conceptual Framework

A conceptual framework is a theoretical construct that serves as a foundational structure guiding the development of research questions, hypotheses, and the overall design of a study. It provides a systematic and organized approach, offering researchers a lens through which they can interpret, analyze, and understand their observations and findings. The conceptual framework typically consists of key concepts, variables, and the relationships between them, helping researchers contextualize their study within existing knowledge and theoretical perspectives (Creswell, 2017).

N.B. The conceptual frameworks were discussed here (Health Science Research Methods). Content on this page, related to the conceptual frameworks are intended for application purposes.

How to use a Conceptual Framework

Step 1

Conduct a comprehensive literature review focused on the issue, phenomenon, or topic under study. This step involves critically examining existing research to identify relevant concepts and theories.

Step 2

Formulate ideas based on insights gained from the literature. Begin conceptualizing the key components and relationships within the study’s scope.

Step 3

Seek a deep understanding of the relationships between different elements identified in the literature. Clarify how these elements interact and influence one another.

Step 4

Aim to reduce the complexity of the studied phenomena by identifying and defining measurable components, commonly referred to as variables. This step involves operationalizing abstract concepts into measurable and observable terms.

Step 5

Determine if there are established relationships among the identified variables. If so, explore the nature of these relationships, distinguishing between dependent and independent variables.

Step 6

Prepare a graphical representation of the conceptual framework. This visual tool helps illustrate the connections between variables and provides a clear overview of the proposed relationships.

Conceptual Framework and the Research Title

Recall this Research Title

Conceptual Framework Example #1- Social-Ecological Model (SEM)

The Social-Ecological Model (SEM) provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the multifaceted factors influencing health behaviors and outcomes. SEM encompasses multiple levels of influence, including individual, interpersonal, community, and societal factors, which interact to shape health-related behaviors and outcomes (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Sallis, Owen & Fisher, 2008).

Individual Level- Individual factors such as access to nutritious food options and opportunities for physical activity directly influence obesity rates among adults (18-65) in low-income neighborhoods of Kingston and St. Andrew.

Interpersonal Level- Social support networks, family dynamics, and peer influences may also play a role in shaping individuals’ access to nutritious food and physical activity opportunities.

Community Level- Neighborhood characteristics, including the availability of recreational facilities, walkability, and access to grocery stores or farmers’ markets, impact individuals’ ability to engage in healthy behaviors.

Societal Level- Socioeconomic factors, government policies, and environmental regulations contribute to disparities in access to nutritious food and physical activity opportunities, particularly in low-income urban neighborhoods.

By applying the Social-Ecological Model (SEM) to the study, researchers can examine the interplay between individual, interpersonal, community, and societal factors in shaping urban obesity rates. This framework facilitates a holistic understanding of the complex interactions influencing health behaviors and outcomes, guiding the identification of intervention strategies at multiple levels of influence.

Conceptual Framework Example #2- Health Belief Model (HBM)

In applying a conceptual framework to this study, we can draw upon the Health Belief Model (HBM) as a guiding theoretical framework. The Health Belief Model explores how individual beliefs and perceptions influence health-related behaviors (Rosenstock, 1974; Janz & Becker, 1984). In the context of the study, the HBM can help elucidate how perceived access to nutritious food and physical activity opportunities influences the health behavior of adults in low-income neighborhoods, subsequently impacting obesity rates.

Perceived Susceptibility- The individual’s perception of their susceptibility to obesity based on their access to nutritious food options and opportunities for physical activity.

Perceived Severity- The perceived severity of obesity as an outcome, influenced by the accessibility and quality of nutritious food and physical activity opportunities.

Perceived Benefits- The perceived benefits of having access to nutritious food and physical activity opportunities in mitigating or preventing obesity.

Perceived Barriers- Identifying perceived barriers such as economic constraints or lack of infrastructural support that may hinder access to nutritious food and opportunities for physical activity.

HBM examines existing literature to identify key constructs of the model and empirical evidence linking these constructs to obesity and health behaviors. Formulate ideas based on insights gained from the literature, focusing on the role of perceived access in influencing obesity rates. Seek to understand how perceived access to nutritious food and physical activity opportunities relates to obesity rates based on the Health Belief Model. Identify and define measurable components (variables) related to perceived access, health beliefs, and obesity rates. Determine if established relationships exist among the identified variables, exploring the nature of these relationships. Prepare a graphical representation of the conceptual framework, illustrating the relationships between perceived access, health beliefs, and obesity rates.

The HBM and SEM are just two of the many conceptual frameworks. Other applications of the conceptual frameworks will be discussed as we explore Research Methods- Chapter Two. Now that we have reviewed how to use a conceptual framework, let us look at the research hypothesis.

Research Hypothesis

A research hypothesis is a clear, testable, and specific statement predicting the expected relationship or difference between variables in a study. Researchers aim to support or reject it through empirical investigation, using the hypothesis as a guiding proposition. A well-formulated hypothesis structures the study, facilitating data collection, analysis, and meaningful conclusions (Cozby & Bates, 2018).

Generating a hypothesis requires a deep understanding of the research topic, involving theories, literature, and previous studies. A literature review helps identify gaps, inconsistencies, or areas needing exploration. Understanding variables and their relationships is crucial for forming a specific, testable prediction. Considering context, population, and potential confounding factors ensures a realistic and feasible hypothesis. A well-informed hypothesis guides research and contributes to advancing knowledge.

A hypothesis derived from theory is a deductive hypothesis, typical in quantitative research. Researchers systematically test these hypotheses, collecting data to examine validity. The goal is not proof but seeking evidence supporting or refuting it, ensuring a rigorous examination of theoretical expectations and contributing to empirical understanding.

Types of Hypothesis

#1. Research Hypothesis

The research hypothesis represents the researcher’s expectation regarding the study’s outcome.
Role– Guides the study and shapes data collection and analysis.

#2. Null Hypothesis (H₀)

H₀ posits no expectation of a difference among variables.
Example- H₀: A = B (No significant difference between measurements for Group A and those for Group B).
Role- Tested by statistical significance tests.

#3. Non-Directional Hypothesis

A non-directional hypothesis anticipates a difference without predicting its direction.
Example– H: A ≠ B (Significant difference between measurements for Group A and Group B).
Role– Leaves the direction of the expected difference unspecified.

#4. Directional Hypotheses

The directional hypothesis anticipates a difference and predicts its direction.
Examples
- H: A < B (Group A has a significantly lower measurement than Group B).
- H: A > B (Group A has a significantly higher measurement than Group B).
Role– Specifies the expected direction of the difference.

#5. Alternative Hypothesis (H_a)

H_a offers an alternative to the null hypothesis, expressing an anticipated difference. H_a may be directional or non-directional in nature.
Role- Provides the basis for assessing whether the null hypothesis can be rejected.

Let us explore some examples using the research questions previously mentioned.

Purpose and Significance of the Study

Clearly outlines the goals and objectives of the research. It discusses why the study is important, its potential contributions, and how it fills gaps in existing knowledge. Essentially, the purpose outlines the specific aims of the research, while the significance emphasizes the broader implications and importance of the study within the relevant field or community.

Recall this Research Title

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study defines the specific goals and objectives researchers aim to achieve through their investigation, offering clear direction and outlining intended accomplishments. It is crucial to align the study’s purpose with the chosen research paradigm or philosophy. For instance, clarifying whether the research adopts a positivist, interpretivist, or critical approach is essential. Additionally, it is vital to establish alignment with the chosen research design, whether exploratory, explanatory, descriptive, or experimental, by elucidating how the design supports the intended objectives. Aligning purpose with both paradigm and design enhances the clarity and coherence of the research framework.

Example

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between access to nutritious food and physical activity opportunities and obesity rates among adults (18-65) residing in low-income neighborhoods of Kingston and St. Andrew. Through a cross-sectional analysis, the research aims to investigate how the availability of nutritious food options and opportunities for physical activity contributes to the prevalence of obesity in the urban context.

Significance of the Study

The significance of the study underscores its importance and relevance in the broader academic, practical, or societal context, elucidating why the research is valuable and its potential contributions to existing knowledge or applications.

The rationale for the study’s importance and necessity is emphasized by addressing gaps in knowledge, issues, or challenges it aims to tackle, justifying its timeliness and relevance. This justification forms a critical aspect of the study’s significance.
Contributing to the existing body of knowledge in the field is a key aspect of significance. The study may confirm, extend, challenge, or build upon previous research, highlighting potential theoretical, practical, or methodological contributions.
Exploring the practical applications or real-world implications of the study adds to its significance. Considering how findings might be applied in practice, policy, or decision-making, and evaluating the broader impact on the field or relevant stakeholders enhances the study’s importance.
Defining the study’s boundaries and constraints, including what is included or excluded, and discussing potential limitations or challenges affecting result interpretation, contributes to the significance by establishing the study’s context and potential constraints.
Identifying the target audience and stakeholders, including academic scholars, practitioners, policymakers, or the general public, adds to the significance by recognizing who may benefit or be affected by the study.
The alignment of the study’s purpose with the chosen research paradigm or philosophy, such as a positivist, interpretivist, or critical approach, and clarifying how the purpose aligns with the chosen research design, whether exploratory, explanatory, descriptive, or experimental, further enhances the study’s significance by providing coherence and context.

Aims and Objectives

Aims

It is crucial to clearly articulate the aims and objectives to provide a comprehensive overview of the study’s purpose and planned activities. Aims serve as overarching goals, outlining the broad outcomes and intentions of the research endeavor. They provide a visionary perspective, offering a glimpse into the long-term project aspirations. Aims should focus on what needs to be achieved, steering clear of specific methodologies or approaches. Instead, they offer a panoramic view of the desired outcomes, shaping the overall research landscape. These statements act as a guiding beacon, illuminating the path researchers intend to tread, encapsulating the essence of the research topic and its potential impact. A well-crafted aim succinctly paints the picture of the study’s overarching goals, setting the stage for the subsequent objectives.

Recall this Research Title

Example– To investigate the impact of access to nutritious food and physical activity opportunities on obesity rates among adults (18-65) residing in low-income neighborhoods of Kingston and St. Andrew, providing a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted factors influencing urban obesity.

This aim offers a panoramic view of the desired research outcomes without delving into specific methodologies or approaches. It serves as a guiding beacon, illuminating the path researchers intend to take in the exploration of urban obesity, encapsulating the essence of the research topic and its potential impact on public health. The well-crafted aim succinctly paints the picture of the study’s overarching goals, setting the stage for the subsequent formulation of specific objectives.

Objectives

Objectives, on the other hand, serve as the strategic steps delineating the precise methods and tasks essential for achieving the aim(s). Unlike aims, objectives are specific, focused, and measurable. They elucidate how the aim(s) will be accomplished, breaking down the research process into actionable tasks. Objectives are intricately linked to the research questions, forming a logical sequence of steps to find answers and solutions. These tasks are often enumerated, allowing each objective to stand as an individual statement representing a unique facet of the research plan. Objectives should be not only feasible but also sensible and precisely described, ensuring that they align seamlessly with the broader aims. By outlining these immediate project outcomes, objectives provide a clear roadmap for researchers, enabling them to navigate the complexities of the research process with purpose and clarity.

Examples

Investigate the prevailing obesity rates among adults aged 18-65 in low-income neighborhoods of Kingston and St. Andrew through a comprehensive cross-sectional analysis.

Examine the accessibility and availability of nutritious food options within the targeted low-income neighborhoods, exploring factors such as proximity to grocery stores, farmers’ markets, and the affordability of healthy food choices.

Analyze the opportunities for physical activity within the study area, considering factors such as the presence of recreational facilities, walkability of neighborhoods, and the availability of spaces conducive to exercise.

Research Questions

Clarity in research questions is essential as it guides the methods and shapes the results obtained. The choice of methods and the eventual outcomes are intricately linked to the specific questions being addressed. Different research traditions are associated with distinct problem areas. For instance, if you’re exploring how a particular group perceives a disease and related services, the question should be precisely formulated to capture their experiences and opinions accurately. Unlike scientific hypotheses that can be falsified, this type of question aims to paint a comprehensive and truthful picture to inform the development of services. Crafting a precise research question is a foundational step in the research process, although arriving at a well-defined question often involves an iterative, cyclical process influenced by various external factors.

Quantitative Research

These characteristics collectively define quantitative research, emphasizing precision, statistical rigor, and the objective exploration of relationships within large datasets. Quantitative research exhibits distinct characteristics that set it apart:

Quantitative research articulates research problems by exploring trends and relationships within the data. It seeks to understand patterns and connections to address complex issues.
The literature plays a pivotal role, guiding the formulation of precise research questions and justifying the research problem. It provides a foundation for constructing focused inquiries.
The formulation of purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses is a meticulous process in quantitative research. These statements are crafted to be specific, narrow, measurable, and observable, ensuring clarity and precision.
Quantitative studies involve the systematic collection of numeric data from a substantial sample using various instruments. This method enables the analysis of data on a scale, offering statistical insights.
Rigorous data analysis is a hallmark of quantitative research, involving the examination of trends, comparisons between groups, and exploration of relationships among variables. Statistical methods unveil meaningful patterns.
The presentation of findings follows standard, fixed structures in quantitative research reports. This approach ensures clarity and objectivity, fostering a systematic understanding of the research outcomes.

Since the research questions guide the research approaches or methodologies, let us look at some questions we could ask with respect to the various approaches, our study title and objectives:

Quantitative Research Questions

What is the current prevalence rate of obesity among adults aged 18-65 in low-income neighborhoods of Kingston and St. Andrew?
How does the obesity rate vary across different age groups within the specified population?

Quantitative Research Questions

How does the proximity to grocery stores and farmers’ markets correlate with the reported frequency of consuming nutritious food options among residents in low-income neighborhoods?
To what extent does the affordability of healthy food choices impact the dietary habits of adults in the study area?

Quantitative Research Questions

What is the correlation between the presence of recreational facilities and the reported frequency of engaging in physical activity among adults in the specified neighborhoods?
How does the walkability index of neighborhoods relate to the self-reported levels of physical activity among residents?

Qualitative Research

Some key characteristics of a qualitative research approach influencing the design of research questions:

Qualitative research aims to explore a problem or phenomenon in-depth, providing rich and detailed insights.
While the use of literature can provide context and justify the problem, it often plays a minor or secondary role compared to quantitative research.
Qualitative studies frame their purpose and research questions in broad, open-ended ways, allowing for a nuanced exploration.
Data is typically collected from a limited number of participants, allowing researchers to delve deeply into individual experiences.
Qualitative data analysis involves examining textual or visual data to identify patterns, themes, and detailed descriptions.
Qualitative research reports often have flexible structures, accommodating emergent themes, and may include the researcher’s subjective reflexivity and acknowledgment of potential biases.

Here are some examples of qualitative-type research questions linked to the research title and objectives developed above:

Qualitative Research Questions

What are the lived experiences and perceptions of individuals regarding factors contributing to obesity in the studied communities?
How do socio-cultural factors influence attitudes towards body weight and obesity in the target population?

Qualitative Research Questions

What are the qualitative experiences and challenges faced by individuals in accessing and affording nutritious food options within the studied communities?
How do perceptions of food accessibility and affordability influence dietary choices and habits among residents?

Qualitative Research Questions

What are the qualitative experiences and perceptions of individuals regarding the availability and accessibility of spaces for physical activity in their neighborhoods?
How do social and environmental factors influence the decision-making process of engaging in physical activities within the studied communities?

Research Question based on Research Approach

The research question(s) may also be influenced by other research approaches, such as descriptive, exploratory, historical, etc. This list is not intended to be exhaustive; you can review the examples below:

Descriptive Research Example

“What are the current obesity rates among adults aged 18-65 in low-income neighborhoods of Kingston and St. Andrew?“

Descriptive research aims to provide an accurate portrayal of existing phenomena. This question seeks to describe the prevailing obesity rates, focusing on presenting a comprehensive overview of the current situation.

Historical Research Example

“How has the accessibility and availability of nutritious food options in low-income neighborhoods of Kingston and St. Andrew evolved over the past decade?“

Historical research is concerned with understanding changes over time. This question delves into the historical aspect of food accessibility, aiming to uncover trends and transformations in the availability of nutritious food options.

Experimental Research Example

“What is the impact of implementing interventions to enhance opportunities for physical activity in low-income neighborhoods of Kingston and St. Andrew on obesity rates among adults aged 18-65?“

Experimental research involves manipulating variables to observe their effect. This question aligns with experimental research by proposing interventions (manipulating opportunities for physical activity) and assessing their impact on the dependent variable (obesity rates).

Health Science Research Methods

Click the Icon to Return to the Main Page.

Research Methods Chapter Two- Literature Review

Click the Icon to go to the Next Page

Research Methods Chapter Three- Research Design and Methodology

Click the Icon to go to the Next Page

Research Methods Chapter Four- Data Analysis and Results

Click the Icon to go to the Next Page

References

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.

Cozby, P. C., & Bates, S. C. (2018). Methods in Behavioral Research (13th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

Creswell, J. W. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). SAGE Publications.

Fawcett, J., & Downs, F. S. (1986). The nature of theory in nursing. In Advances in nursing theory development (pp. 35-44). Springer.

Janz, N. K., & Becker, M. H. (1984). The Health Belief Model: A decade later. Health Education Quarterly, 11(1), 1-47.

Rosenstock, I. M. (1974). Historical origins of the Health Belief Model. Health Education Monographs, 2(4), 328-335.

Sallis, J. F., Owen, N., & Fisher, E. B. (2008). Ecological models of health behavior. In K. Glanz, B. K. Rimer, & K. Viswanath (Eds.), Health behavior and health education: Theory, research, and practice (4th ed., pp. 465-486). Jossey-Bass.

Author: D. L. Baker (BPharm, MBA, MPH, Dip.Ed.)

Published: 2024- Jan- 22; Last updated: 2024- Feb- 8